Managing Endangered Species on Military Lands
By: L. Peter Boice
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The Department of Defense (DoD) is the third largest federal
land managing agency in the United States, managing over 25
million acres of land on over 425 major military installations.
DoD uses these areas to maintain mission readiness. Marine and
estuarine environments are used to test vessels and submarine
tracking equipment, evaluate missile weapons, hold shock trials
on new ships and carry out training exercises. Airspace is used
to train pilots and test fighter planes as well as air-based
weapons systems. Combat training exercises, munitions testing,
and deployment of weapons systems are conducted on land
resources.
DoD lands are found in many different habitats across the
country and contain rich and varied natural and cultural
resources. Limited access due to security considerations and the
need for safety buffer zones have protected these resources for
decades from development and other potentially damaging uses. As
a result, DoD installations contain some of the finest remaining
examples of rare native vegetative communities such as old-growth
forest, tall-grass prairies and vernal pool wetlands.
Approximately 220 different federally listed species are known to
occur on at least one DoD installation-the highest known density
per acre of threatened and endangered species found on any
federal lands. Many candidate species may be found on lands
under DoD control. More than 200 installations provide habitat
for at least one candidate or listed species.
DoD embraces its stewardship responsibilities for these
valuable resources. However, underlying any management decision
affecting DoD lands is the fact that these lands must first be
managed for the continued use of military training and testing-a
situation quite different from that of "traditional" land
management agencies. This is manifested in DoD's three-part
conservation goal, which is to support the military mission by:
1) providing for sustained use of its land, sea, and air
resources, while protecting valuable natural and cultural
resources for future generations; 2) meeting all legal
requirements, for example, of the Endangered Species Act; and,
3) protecting compatible multiple use of these resources. The
challenge for DoD is to balance the need to maintain its access
to air, land, and water resources for current military training
with the need to protect and manage these resources for all
desired long-term uses.
Conflicting Management Requirements
Given the complexity of its management challenge, DoD has
experienced occasional conflicts between the military mission and
its legal mandate to protect threatened and endangered species.
During the past decade, approximately 15 installations have
needed to modify or restrict military training or testing to
comply with the Endangered Species Act. Required changes have
included actions such as modifications to training schedules,
the temporary closing of specific areas, restrictions on the
types of activities permitted, and improved environmental
awareness training for troops using sensitive areas. Although
these modifications have not been without cost, DoD has
established a good working relationship with the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service.
Consultations have, consequently, resulted in solutions which
generally meet both mission and species' needs.
Management of threatened and endangered species is likely to
become a greater challenge for DoD for a variety of reasons.
First, the number of species requiring protection will probably
increase. Second, as military installations close and weapons
systems become more sophisticated, demands for use of remaining
training grounds will increase. Third, the lands surrounding
many military installations have experienced rapid development
over the past 50 years, resulting in many DoD lands becoming
"islands of protection" in "seas of development." Lastly, there
is substantial pressure on all federal lands, including DoD, to
shoulder an increasing share of the responsibility to protect
dwindling habitats and species. For these reasons, DoD is
looking to develop regional partnerships that encourage shared
responsibility for protected species management and recovery,
which could reduce the potential for future restrictions on
military operations.
DoD Ecosystem Management
DoD is adopting an integrated, ecosystem-based approach to
conservation that allows the military greater flexibility in
managing its lands. Rather than be tied to the limited objective
of protecting individual endangered species, DoD prefers to
emphasize the overall protection of existing groups of plants and
animals. Emphasizing protection of ecosystems results in
continued high quality management and care, and a more cost
effective means of providing resource protection. Successful
management in this fashion will ultimately release DoD from
inflexible regulatory demands occasionally associated with
protection of endangered species.
Mojave Desert Initiatives
DoD is embracing the principles of ecosystem management on a
regional scale in California's Mojave Desert, DoD's premier
training and testing region. The area houses several major
installations, including the Army's National Training Center at
Fort Irwin, Marine Corps Ground Combat Center at Twenty-Nine
Palms, Edwards Air Force Base, and Naval Air Weapons Center at
China Lake. DoD conducts most of its large-scale unit training
exercises and major weapons testing at these installations. DoD
also protects many important natural and cultural resources in
the desert, including the endangered desert tortoise (Gopherus
agassizii), and has significant interest in the region's long-
term sustainability.
To more effectively coordinate resource management goals and
activities and provide for resource protection in the Mojave
Desert, DoD has teamed with the Department of the Interior to
collectively manage these lands. This collaborative effort
allows each department to survey and inventory its lands, control
soil erosion, and prepare management plans that recognize
political boundaries but address biological integrity across
these boundaries. An ecosystem approach will help DoD land
managers and trainers better assess the quality of their lands,
determine future uses, assess impacts beyond installation
borders, and conserve areas that are rare and unique or harbor
protected species. The Mojave Initiative will also provide DoD
greater flexibility in the use of the Mojave for military
activities.
Biodiversity Initiative
The Biodiversity Initiative, a two-year collaborative effort
with The Nature Conservancy and The Keystone Center, is designed
to enhance biodiversity management on DoD lands. The first
product of this effort is the creation of the DoD Biodiversity
Management Strategy, which covers three aspects of biodiversity
conservation:
* a policy framework for managing biodiversity on DoD lands,
including suggestions for improving current policies and
programs, and for integrating mission planning with biodiversity
conservation;
* an iterative, model management process designed to be a tool
for making management decisions and developing integrated
management and annual work plans for biodiversity conservation on
DoD installations; and,
* measures of success that can be used to monitor biodiversity
conservation in the context of military readiness.
A second outcome of the initiative is the DoD Commander's
Guide to Biodiversity which provides military commanders with a
succinct description of why biodiversity conservation is
important for DoD and the nation. Lastly, the Biodiversity
Handbook for Natural Resources Managers provides practical
information for use by DoD's managers. This initiative has
increased the visibility of sound natural resources management in
the Department of Defense.
Supporting the Military Mission
The support of installation commanders and military trainers
is essential to the effective protection of threatened and
endangered species on military lands. Because commanders control
most local funding and land use decisions, DoD is placing
increased emphasis on explaining to them how conservation
activities directly support training and readiness. The key
message is that protecting and maintaining the resources on
training lands is essential for their continued use and makes
good business sense. For example, sound resource management
helps maintain natural landscapes for realistic military training
now and in the future, and helps keep DoD in compliance with
environmental laws.
The Army's Integrated Training Area Management (ITAM)
program is a premier example of how the conservation program
directly supports training uses. The ITAM program integrates
military training, testing, and other mission requirements with
the condition of the land and its ability to support mission
requirements. It avoids unnecessary and irreparable damage to
vital training ranges, and provides accurate assessments of land
conditions and wildlife habitat to managers and commanders. ITAM
has resulted in significant savings and increased mission
carrying capacity at many Army training sites. Although an
environmental conservation program, ITAM was transferred from the
environmental managers to those charged with operations and plans
in FY 1995. With ITAM at their disposal, installation commanders
can be assured that their mission is not hindered and that proper
land management will accompany continued intensive training.
(The ITAM program is described in more detail in the last section
of this article.)
Another important conservation program which supports the
military mission is the Bird Air Strike Hazard (BASH) program.
BASH is aimed at minimizing collisions between military aircraft
and birds. DoD has established monitoring stations across the
country to determine population trends. Additional data come
from DoD's network of state-of-the-art weather surveillance radar
sites. Next-generation radar (NEXRAD) detects birds during
migrations and provides information about their numbers, general
direction of flight, and altitude. Knowledge of where birds
travel, nest, and feed helps DoD avoid problem areas, and
therefore saves lives and avoids the destruction of valuable
airplanes. This is not a small problem - from January 1992
through June 1993, the Navy alone reported 27 major mishap bird
strikes that cost an estimated $98 million.
Multi-Service Projects
Although many endangered species issues are installation-
specific, some are best addressed by a coordinated, multi-Service
effort. This is best demonstrated on Guam. The Air Force, Navy,
Guam Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, Department of
the Interior, Department of Agriculture, and many others have
joined forces to control the brown tree snake (Boiga
irregularis), an invasive species. The snake has wiped out
almost all of the native birds of the island, as well as many
indigenous reptiles and bats. It also causes costly power
outages by climbing power lines, and its mildly venomous bite is
a serious threat to infants and young children.
DoD has sponsored a major research initiative on the brown
tree snake, with technical assistance from the Department of the
Interior. A major focus has been the development and testing of
snake exclusion areas which could, if successful, permit the
reintroduction of certain species currently extirpated from the
island. Other efforts include work on an effective trap design
for capturing snakes, the testing of attractants that maximize
trap success, the testing of fumigants that kill stowaway snakes
in cargo, and monitoring of snake populations. Educational
materials are also being developed for and disseminated to
military and civilians associated with cargo handling, as well as
other interested individuals.
Summary
DoD has taken an active role in developing overall goals and
guidelines for management of the Department's lands. Natural
resource managers within each sector of the military (e.g., Army,
Navy, Air Force, Marines) face many of the same issues as
traditional land management agencies, with the added requirement
that they must integrate these issues with military mission
requirements. The degree to which they succeed can be critical
to DoD's ability to continue essential training and testing
activities on its land, air and water resources. The following
articles look at specific land management efforts on Army and
Navy held lands, and the next issue of the Endangered Species
UPDATE will cover efforts for Air Force and Marine installations.
U.S. NAVY LANDS
The Navy manages 182 installations on more than 2 million
acres of land. These facilities are found in 25 states, as well
as in Puerto Rico, Guam, and other western Pacific islands.
Installations near wetlands, riparian areas, and coastal areas
contain a substantial number of listed and candidate species.
Those located near urban centers, more than half of which are
less than 1000 acres, are also subject to significant outside
pressures.
More than 100 different listed species are known to occur on
at least 92 Navy installations. To help manage these species and
important ecological areas, the Navy manages five recognized
ecological reserves and six formally designated critical
habitats. Each year the Navy invests directly more than $3
million for the protection of these threatened and endangered
species.
Not surprisingly, the Navy's endangered species management
program tends to focus on marine and coastal species. Protection
of these species is vital to ensure the Navy's compliance with
the ESA, and thus its continued access to ports, access routes,
and test areas.
Manatee Protection
At Naval Submarine Base Kings Bay, Georgia, the Navy has
mounted a major effort to protect the West Indian manatee
(Trichechus manatus). After a Navy tugboat accidentally hit a
female manatee and her calf swimming near Kings Bay in 1990, the
navy initiated a project to design a propeller guard for its
powerful C-tractor tugs. These specially designed vessels are
used to handle submarines during arrival and departure. The goal
was to protect manatees from being pulled into the powerful
propellers. When the first guard was installed in 1991 it was
found to not only be effective in protecting manatees, but also
in improving the efficiency of the tug. Similar guards have been
installed on all tugs and other small vessels in the bay.
The Navy has also developed additional protective measures
at Kings Bay. Places in and near Kings Bay where manatees are
known to congregate have been declared as no-entry areas. Speed
limits have been posted. Artificial water discharges have been
eliminated to discourage the manatees from coming near where
boats operate. The Navy has also begun a manatee watch
program to monitor the animals.
A similar program to protect the manatee is underway at
Roosevelt Roads Naval Station, Puerto Rico, one of the world's
largest and most advanced naval training ranges. In addition to
awareness programs, Navy resource managers and U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service biologists are working on a pilot program to use
a satellite to provide information on manatee behavior and
movement.
Whale Monitoring
The Navy is providing marine scientists a powerful tool from
the Cold War for learning more about whale numbers, behavior, and
movements. The tool involves the Navy's formerly top secret,
Sound Surveillance System (SOSUS) a series of underwater
listening devices on the ocean floor. The system was built to
track Soviet and other submarines by the sounds they make in the
water. In order to successfully track submarines, the Navy had
to distinguish and filter out the underwater sounds made by
whales. In the process, the Navy learned to identify six whale
species-blue (Balaenoptera musculus), bottlenose (Beradius
bairdii), bowhead (Balaena mysticetus), fin (Balaenoptera
physalus), humpback (Megaptera novaeangliae), and minke
(Balaenoptera acutorostrata)-by the distinct sounds each makes.
This information was not needed to detect submarines and, thus,
was not used at first. Now, however, these listening devices are
being used to study whales.
The Navy is also monitoring whales from the air. An airship
is being used to observe endangered Northern right whales
(Eubalaena glacialis) off the coasts of Florida and Georgia, the
mammals' only known calving area. Information is being collected
to reduce the potential for the right whales to be struck by
ships or become entangled in fishing gear. This voluntary,
collaborative effort between federal, state, and local agencies
and non-profit organizations is helping to protect the whale
while allowing human activity in the area to continue.
Regional Planning-San Diego Bay
The Navy is leading the development of an integrated,
interagency, bay-wide management plan for one of its most heavily
used areas, the San Diego Bay. This effort is being undertaken
in coordination with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the San
Diego Port Authority, and the private shipping community. To
support this effort, the Navy has initiated a series of studies
to determine what species use the bay and the status of the bay's
natural habitats. This information will allow the Navy to better
plan for and integrate its in-water training operations, and
assignment of new ships to home ports, with preservation of the
bay's valuable but vulnerable natural resources.
A specific example of the Navy's management of endangered
species in the San Diego Bay area involves the endangered
California least tern (Sterna antillarum browni). The Navy and
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service are implementing a Navy-
initiated agreement which helps both agencies achieve individual
program goals and, at the same time, provides enhanced management
for the tern. Each year, the Navy provides a single list of in-
water construction projects planned for piers and dredging in San
Diego Bay, which the Fish and Wildlife Service reviews for impact
to the terns. Together the agencies plan specific management
goals for least tern nesting colonies on three Navy bases, as
well as special projects which the Navy performs to benefit the
terns. The Navy provides centrally-managed funds for the tern
management and projects, rather than tying piecemeal
mitigations to small projects. The Navy gains the ability to
plan its projects without delays, and eliminates the need for
many individual informal Section 7 consultations. The Fish and
Wildlife Service gains better oversight of one of California's
most endangered species. The least tern gains intensive and
consistent management at some of its largest remaining nesting
sites in San Diego Bay.
Old Growth Forests
Naval facilities are not usually located in the midst of a
forest, but in one case, the Navy is helping to preserve one of
the last stands of low-elevation Sitka spruce forest in the
Pacific northwest. In 1950, the Navy purchased land to construct
Naval Radio Station, Jim Creek, Washington, a key communications
line between naval shore commands and U.S. submarines at sea.
However, the former owner retained the logging rights to the
forest, which contains Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) and
western red cedars (Thuja plicata) 800 to 1500 years old, 250
feet tall, and ten feet in diameter. All but 225 acres had been
previously logged, and in 1990 a timber company proposed to log
Jim Creek's remaining tall trees. Recognizing the forest's
ecological significance and its importance to the base's water
supply, the Navy purchased the logging rights to the remaining
stand, thus preserving a vital piece of our natural heritage, and
potential nesting habitat for the threatened marbled murrelet
(Brachyramphus marmoratus).
Vernal Pool Restoration
Vernal pools are shallow wetlands formed during the rainy
season. The pools at Naval Air Station Miramar, California,
which represent 80% of the remaining pools in San Diego County,
are home to the endangered San Diego mesa mint (Pogogyne
abramsii), button celery (Eryngium spp.), and the San Diego fairy
shrimp (Branchinecta sandiegoensis). In one project, Navy
resource managers and local scientists used aerial photographs
and field inspections to identify sites at Miramar where vernal
pools once existed but had been damaged before the Navy bought
the land. Thirty-three of the pools were then restored, by
carefully excavating fill material without damaging the hard clay
underneath. Seeds, soil, and other fill material were then added
to the restored pools. The soils, which had been collected from
vernal pools in an off-base area that was about to be developed,
held seeds from the mesa mint and button celery, as well as eggs
from the fairy shrimp. Both seeds and eggs often lie dormant for
months or even years awaiting the next rainfall. This successful
project added significant vernal pool habitat without impacting
the military mission.
U.S. ARMY LANDS
The Army manages nearly 12 million acres of land on
approximately 120 major installations across the United States;
this is almost half of the total acreage under the management of
the Department of Defense (DoD). In addition, more than one
million acres of mostly state-owned lands are used by the Army
National Guard. The Army utilizes its land to provide realistic
conditions for training and testing. Large blocks of land with
varied natural terrain act as the soldiers' "classroom."
Because successful learning is so closely linked to the
availability and condition of the land, the Army, perhaps more
than the other Military Services, has needed to adapt to
increasing pressures on these lands. With more than 85 listed
species known to occur on at least 63 Army installations,
increased management requirements for protected species have
placed greater pressure on lands where there are few listed
species. Additionally, changes in the military, such as more
sophisticated weaponry, the return to the United States of many
forces previously deployed overseas, base closures, and increased
development pressures on adjacent non-military lands, have also
increased the demand on the Army's remaining lands.
Endangered Species Management Plans
Each year the Army invests directly more than $7 million for
the protection of threatened and endangered species on its lands.
The Army specifically requires each of its installations with
endangered animals, plants, or habitat to develop an Endangered
Species Management Plan that protects and supports the recovery
of these species and their habitats. A manual, designed to
streamline the implementation process, provides a template for
commanders to follow when developing these plans. The manual
stresses the importance of having installation commanders,
trainers, and environmental staff work together to establish and
implement a plan. Guidelines are broken down into eleven
different steps; examples include developing a complete inventory
of the installation's lands and species; assessing military
requirements and integrating them with the needs of the protected
species; establishing monitoring programs; coordinating with the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries
Service; and, fulfilling NEPA requirements.
Integrated Training Area Management Program
The Integrated Training Area Management (ITAM) program is
critical to the management of natural resources at more than 60
Army training installations. ITAM integrates five major elements
to provide Army land managers with a comprehensive approach to
land management:
* Monitoring land and resource conditions to develop an
understanding of the land's ability to withstand training
stresses;
* Environmental awareness among soldiers to encourage
stewardship and wise tactical use of natural resources;
* Land rehabilitation and erosion control technologies to
conserve resources and improve training realism;
* Integration of training mission requirements with natural
resource capability to optimize land use; and,
* Threatened and endangered species management.
ITAM results in at least four long-term benefits for Army
installations. The program seeks to provide realistic training
experiences which enhance Army readiness, fighting capabilities,
and soldier safety and survivability. It also works to avoid
extreme environmental damage and loss of land through controlled
land allocation and advanced rehabilitation techniques. A focus
on management over the long-term reduces the costs related to
compliance with environmental regulations. Finally, the program
provides a credible foundation from which to make decisions about
training requirements analyses, base realignments, and
acquisition actions.
One location where ITAM has successfully been adopted is
Orchard Training Area, Idaho. The training area supports Army
National Guard units from the Pacific Northwest with a year-round
heavy armor and tank school as well as a helicopter battalion.
The area around Orchard claims the nation's densest population of
raptors, which are protected under the Snake River Birds of Prey
Area, a designated protected area established in 1980. Fragile
land surfaces and at least one candidate plant species are also
managed under ITAM. As a result of ITAM military trainers are
able to identify suitable training areas and to restrict ground
disturbing activities to previously disturbed sites. Training
schedules are now adjusted to times and locations which will
minimize the impact to the vegetation and soils in the designated
training area.
Technical Research Priorities
The Army is at the forefront of land-based research on
protected species and other natural resource issues. Priority
issues being investigated by the Army include the impact of
military operations on protected species, especially blast and
helicopter noise, smoke, and obscurants, and maneuver
disturbances; standardized inventory and monitoring protocols;
the mitigation of DoD-unique impacts; monitoring and management
in danger zones; and the characterization and evaluation of
threatened and endangered species habitats. Efforts at Fort
Carson and Fort Bragg provide examples of how the Army is
addressing management challenges of specific species.
Success Stories
Fort Carson
The greenback cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki stomias),
a federally listed threatened species, is the only native
Arkansas River drainage salmonid that still exists. Fewer than
700 pure natives to the Arkansas River remained in existence in
1978. Fort Carson has coordinated since 1981 with the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service and the Colorado Division of Wildlife on a
recovery effort for the trout. In 1981, Fort Carson filed a
change of use for an existing water right and constructed a
broodstock pond for rearing the trout. Initially, 40 greenbacks
were transported to Fort Carson's pond. Eggs and fish from this
pond have been used to establish reproducing populations within
national forests. Due to the overall success of the recovery
program, Fort Carson now has a limited catch and release program
for this species which is sanctioned by the Fish and Wildlife
Service.
In addition to the greenbacks, 34 Arkansas darters, which
are listed as a state threatened species, were introduced into
the same pond. Since this initial release, Fort Carson
biologists have established five other broodstocks from the
original population, with no detrimental effect on military
training. As a result of these efforts, Fort Carson has been
identified by the State of Colorado as the source for darters in
the state recovery program.
Fort Bragg
The Army has a number of important training bases in the
southeast, and the endangered red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides
borealis) has presented perhaps one of the most challenging
management issues for Army owned lands. This challenge has been
greatest at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. In the late 1980s and
early 1990s, Fort Bragg experienced a number of significant
training restrictions, including the temporary closure of several
firing ranges, because of conflicts with the woodpecker. Bragg
has adopted a three-fold management strategy to address these
concerns:
* Collaborate with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to
determine a reasonable woodpecker population goal for the Army
base. This goal will determine the amount of land which must be
managed specifically for the woodpecker;
* Develop an endangered species management plan; and,
* Initiate a training and awareness program which will help
all units and personnel comply with the requirements of the
endangered species management plan.
In addition, Fort Bragg is working with surrounding private
landowners to encourage the voluntary adoption of "safe harbors"
for the woodpecker on their lands. The landowners would be under
no long-term obligation to protect the woodpecker, however, in
the meantime, Bragg would benefit from a wider distribution of
healthy woodpecker colonies.
The events at Fort Bragg prompted the Army to conduct a
review of all its installations in the southeastern United
States. In coordination with the Fish and Wildlife Service, the
Army has reviewed existing endangered species management plans,
evaluated the viability of existing populations, and developed
standard management guidelines for the woodpecker for all its
installations. The guidance document provides information on
such management tools as prescribed burns, protection of nesting
trees, and control of understory growth.
Literature Cited
The Keystone Center. Keystone Center Policy Dialogue on A
Department of Defense DoD) Biodiversity Management Strategy:
Final Report. January 23, 1996.
The Nature Conservancy. Conserving Biodiversity on Military
Lands: A Handbook for Natural Resources Managers. June 1996.
DoD Commander's Guide to Biodiversity. April 1996.
L. Peter Boice is Director of Conservation within the Office of
the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense. He can be reached at 3400
Defense Pentagon, Washington, DC 20301-3400.
Vol. 13 Nos. 7&8 1996 Endangered Species UPDATE